Online first
Current issue
Archive
Special Issues
About the Journal
Publication Ethics
Anti-Plagiarism system
Instructions for Authors
Instructions for Reviewers
Editorial Board
Editorial Office
Contact
Reviewers
All Reviewers
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
General Data Protection Regulation (RODO)
REVIEW PAPER
Chemical exposure early in life and the neurodevelopment of children – an overview of current epidemiological evidence
1
Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Nofer Insitute of Occupational Medicine, Łódź, Poland
Corresponding author
Joanna Jurewicz
Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Nofer Insitute of Occupational Medicine, Łódź, Poland
Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Nofer Insitute of Occupational Medicine, Łódź, Poland
Ann Agric Environ Med. 2013;20(3):465-486
KEYWORDS
ABSTRACT
A number of chemicals have been shown to demonstrate neurotoxic effects either in human or laboratory animal studies. This article aims at evaluating the impact of exposure to several chemicals including: organophosphate, organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), mercury and lead on the neurodevelopment of children by reviewing the most recent published literature, and answer the question whether any progress has been made in the epidemiology of the neurodevelopment of children induced by exposure to those chemicals. The result of the presented studies show that exposure to the above-mentioned chemicals may impair the neurodevelopment of children. Neonates exposed to organophosphate pesticides demonstrated a higher proportion of abnormal reflexes, and young children had more attention problems. Exposure to organochlorine pesticides in children was associated with alertness, quality of alert responsiveness, cost of attention and other potential attention associated measures. The majority of studies indicate the negative impact of lead exposure at the level <10 µg/dl or even <5 µg/dl on the neurodevelopment of children. The results of studies on exposure to PCBs, mercury, and their effect on neurodevelopment are inconsistent. Some suggest that prenatal exposure to PCBs and mercury is related to performance impairments, attention and concentration problems, while other do not present any statistically significant association. The studies were mostly well designed, using prospective cohorts with the exposure assessment based on the biomarker of exposure. Concerning the covariates and confounders affecting the endpoints in most of the presented studies, confounders were included in data analysis. In order to recognize the early cognitive, motor and language outcomes of chemical exposures, well standardized tools were used for evaluating the neurodevelopmental effects and offer an early and fairly comprehensive measure of child development. Because the neurotoxicants may cross the placenta and the fetal brain, exposure consideration regarding the reduction of exposure to those chemicals should be implemented.
REFERENCES (96)
1.
Schardein JL, Keller KA. Potential human development toxicants and the role of animal testing in their identification and characterization. CRC Rev Toxicol. 1989; 19: 251–339.
2.
Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 2006; 368: 2167–278.
3.
Dietrich KN, Krafft KM, Bornschein RL, Hammond PB, Berger O, Succop PA, et al. Low-level fetal lead exposure eff ect on neurobehavioral development in early infancy. Pediatrics 1987; 80: 721–730.
4.
Guodong D, Pei W, Ying T, Jun Z, Yu G, Xiaojin W, et al. Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young shanghai children. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46(5): 2911–2917.
5.
Furlong CE, Holland N, Richter RJ, Bradman A, Ho A, Eskenazi B. PON1 status of farmworker mothers and children as a predictor of organophosphate sensitivity. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2006; 16(3): 183–90.
6.
Costa LG. Current issues in organophosphate toxicology. Clin Chim Acta 2006; 366 (1–2): 1–13.
7.
Middlemore-Risher ML, Buccafusco JJ, Terry AV Jr. Repeated exposures to low-level chlorpyrifos results in impairments in sustained attention and increased impulsivity in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 32(4): 415–424.
8.
Howard AS, Bucelli R, Jett DA, Bruun D, Yang D, Lein PJ. Chlorpyrifos exerts opposing effects on axonal and dendritic growth in primary neuronal cultures. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2005; 207(2): 112–124.
9.
Slotkin TA, Seidler FJ. Oxidative and excitatory mechanisms of developmental neurotoxicity: transcriptional profiles for chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dieldrin, and divalent nickel in PC12 cells. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 587–596.
10.
Grandjean P, Harari R, Barr DB, Debes F. Pesticide exposureand stunting as independent predictors of neurobe- havioural defi cits in Ecuadorian school children. Pediatrics. 2006; 117(3): e546–e556.
11.
Rohlman DS, Arcury TA, Quandt SA, Lasarev M, Rothlein J, Travers R, et al. Neurobehavioural performance in preschool children from agricultural communities in Oregon and North Carolina. NeuroToxicol. 2005; 26: 589–598.
12.
Rauh VA, Garfinkel R, Perera FP, Andrews HF, Hoepner L, Barr DB. Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the fi rst 3 years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics 2006; 118(6): 1845–1859.
13.
Ruckart PZ, Kakolewski K, Bove FJ, Kaye W. Long-term neurobehavioural health effects of methyl parathion exposure in children in Mississippi and Ohio. Environ Health Perspect. 2004; 112(1): 46–51.
14.
Young JG, Eskenazi B, Gladstone EA, Bradman A, Pedersen L, Johnson C. Association between in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and abnormal refl exes in neonates. NeuroToxicol. 2005; 26(2): 199–209.
15.
Sanchez-Lizardi P, O’Rourke MK, Morris RJ. The effects of organophosphate pesticide exposure on Hispanic children’s cognitive and behavioral functioning. J Pediatric Psychol. 2008; 33(1): 91–101.
16.
Eskenazi B, Marks AR, Bradman A, Harley K, Barr DB, Johnson C. Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young Mexican-American children. Environ Health Perspect. 2007; 115(5): 792–798.
17.
Engel SM, Berkowitz GS, Barr DB, Teitelbaum SL, Siskind J, Meisel SJ. Prenatal organophosphate metabolite and organochlorine levels and performance on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale in a multiethnic pregnancy cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 2007; 265(12): 1397–1404.
18.
Wendo C. Uganda considers DDT to protect homes from malaria.Health offi cials claim DDE will help save money, but critics warn of environmental costs. Lancet 2004; 363: 1376.
19.
Howdeshell KL. A model of the development of the brain as a construct of the thyroid system. Environ Health Perspect. 2002; 110(Suppl 3): 337–48.
20.
Van Wendel de Joode B, Wesseling C, Kromhout H, Monge P, Garcia M, Mergler D. Chronic nervous-system effects of long-term occupational exposure to DDT. Lancet. 2001; 357: 1014–1015.
21.
Darvill T, Lomky E, Reihman J, Stewart P, Pagano J. Prenatal exposure to PCBs and infant performance on the Fagan test of infant intelligence. NeuroToxicol. 2000; 21: 1029–38.
22.
Ribas-Fito N, Cardo E, Sala M, Eulàlia de Muga M, Mazón C, Verdú A, et al. Breastfeeding, exposure to organochlorine compounds, and neurodevelopment in infants. Pediatrics. 2003; 111(5): e580–e585.
23.
Ribas-Fito N, Torrent M, Carrizo D, Munoz-Ortiz L, Julvez J, Grimalt JO, et al. In utero exposure to background concentration of DDT and cognitive functioning among preschoolers. Am J Epidemiol. 2006; 164: 955–962.
24.
Torres-Sanchez L, Rothenberg SJ, Schnaas L, Cebrian ME, Osorio E, Hernandez MC, et al. In utero p,p’-DDE exposure and infant neurodevelopment: a perinatal cohort in Mexico. Environ Health Persp. 2007; 115(3): 435–439.
25.
Eskenazi B, Marks AR, Bradman A, Fenster L, Johnson C, Barr DB, et al. In utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and neurodevelopment among young Mexican American children. Pediatrics. 2006; 118(1): 233–241.
26.
Sagiv SK, Nugent JK, Brazelton TB, Choi AL, Tolbert PE, Altshul LM, et al. Prenatal organochlorine exposure and measures of behavior in infancy using the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scales (NBAS). Environ Health Perspect. 2008; 116(5): 666–673.
27.
Goodman M, Squibb K, Youngstrom E, Anthony LG, Kenworthy L, Lipkin PH, et al. Using systematic reviews and meta-analyses to support regulatory decision making for neurotoxicants: lessons learned from a case study of PCBs. Environ Health Perspect. 2010; 118(6): 727–734.
28.
Porterfield SP. Thyroidal dysfunction and environmental chemicals– potential impact on brain development. Environ Health Perspect. 2000; 108(Suppl 3): 433–438.
29.
Seegal RF, Brosch KO, Okoniewski RJ. Coplanar PCB congeners increase uterine weight and frontal cortical dopamine in the developing rat: implications for developmental neurotoxicity. Toxicol Sci. 2005; 86: 125–131.
30.
Stewart P, Reihman J, Lonky E, Darvill T, Pagano J. Prenatal PCB exposure and neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS) performance. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2000; 22: 21–29.
31.
Wilhelm M, Wittsiepe J, Lemm F, Ranft U, Kra¨mer U, Fu¨rst P, et al. The Duisburg birth cohort study: Influence of the prenatal exposure to PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs on thyroid hormone status in newborns and neurodevelopment of infants until the age of 24 months. Mutation Res. 2008; 659: 83–92.
32.
Nakajima S, Saijo Y, Kato S, Sasaki S, Uno A, Kanagami N, et al. Effects of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on mental and motor development in Japanese children at 6 months of age. Environ Health Perspect. 2006; 114: 773–778.
33.
Park HY, Hertz-Picciotto I, Sovcikova E, Kocan A, Drobna B, Trnovec T. Neurodevelopmental toxicity of prenatal polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) by chemical structure and activity: a birth cohort study. Environ Health. 2010; 9: 51 doi:10.1186/1476–069X-9–51.
34.
Walkowiak J, Wiener JA, Fastabend A, Heinzow B, Kramer U, Schmidt E, et al. Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and quality of the home environment: effects on psychodevelopment in early childhood. Lancet 2001; 358: 1602–1607.
35.
Stewart PW, Reihman J, Lonky EI, Darvill TJ, Pagano J. Cognitive development in preschool children prenatally exposed to PCBs and MeHg. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2003; 25: 11–22.
36.
Stewart P, Reihman J, Gump B, Lonky E, Darvill T, Pagano J. Response inhibition at 8 and 9 1/2 years of age in children prenatally exposed to PCBs. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2005; 27: 771–780.
37.
Stewart P, Sargent D, Reihman J, Gump B, Lonky E, Darvill T, et al. Response inhibition during differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) schedules may be sensitive to low-level polychlorinated biphenyl, methylmercury, and lead exposure in children. Environ Health Perspect. 2006; 114: 1923–1929.
38.
Stewart PW, Lonky E, Reihman J, Pagano J, Gump BB, Darvill T. The relationship between prenatal PCB exposure and intelligence (IQ) in 9-year-old children. Environ Health Perspect. 2008; 116: 1416–1422.
39.
Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and attention at school age. J Pediatr. 2003; 143: 700–788.
40.
Daniels JL, Longnecker MP, Klebanoff MA, Gray KA, Brock JW, Zhou H, et al. Prenatal exposure to low-level polychlorinated biphenyls in relation to mental and motor development at 8 months. Am J Epidemiol. 2003; 157: 485–492.
41.
Gray KA, Klebanoff MA, Brock JW, Zhou H, Darden R, Needham LL, et al. In utero exposure to background levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and cognitive functioning among school-age children. Am J Epidemiol. 2005; 162: 17–26.
42.
Vreugdenhil HJI, Lanting CI, Mulder PGH, Boersma ER, Weisglas-Kuperus N. Effects of prenatal PCB and dioxin background exposure on cognitive and motor abilities in Dutch children at school age. J Pediatr. 2002; 140: 48–86.
43.
Vreugdenhil HJI, Mulder PGH, Emmen HH, Weisglas-Kuperus N. Effects of perinatal exposure to PCBs on neuropsychological functions in the Rotterdam cohort at 9 years of age. Neuropsychol. 2004; 18: 185–193.
44.
Grandjean P, Weihe P, Burse VW, Needham LL, Storr-Hansen E, Heinzow B, Debes F, et al. Neurobehavioral deficits associated with PCB in 7-year-old children prenatally exposed to seafood neurotoxicants. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2001; 23: 305–317.
45.
Després C, Beuter A, Richer F, Poitras K, Veilleux A, Ayotte P, et al. Neuromotor functions in Inuit preschool children exposed to Pb, PCBs, and Hg. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2005; 27: 245–27.
46.
Castoldi AF, Coccini T, Manzo L. Neurotoxic and molecular effects of methylmercury in humans. Rev Environ Health. 2003; 18: 19–31.
47.
Bjornberg KA, Vahter M, Petersson-Grawe K, Glynn A, Cnattingius S, Darnerud PO et al. Methyl mercury and inorganic mercury in Swedish pregnant women and in cord blood: influence of fish consumption. Environ Health Perspect. 2003; 111: 637–641.
48.
Atchison WD, Hare MF. Mechanisms of methylmercury-induced neurotoxicity. FASEB J. 1994; 8(9): 622–629.
49.
Sager PR, Matheson DW. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity related to selective disruption of microtubules and intermediate filaments. Toxicology 1988; 49(2–3): 479–492.
50.
Clarkson TW, Magos L. The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Crit Rev Toxicol. 2006; 36(8): 609–662; doi:10.1080/10408440600845619.
51.
Debesa F, Budtz-Jørgensen E, Weihea P, Whited RF, Grandjean P. Impact of prenatal methylmercury exposure on neurobehavioral function at age 14 years. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2006; 28(3): 363–375.
52.
Julvez J, Debes F, Weihe P, Choi A, Grandjean P. Sensitivity of continuous performance test (CPT) at age 14 years to developmental methylmercury exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2010; 32: 627–632.
53.
Oken E, Wright RO, Kleinman KP, Bellinger D, Amarasiriwardena CJ, Hu H, et al. Maternal fish consumption, hair mercury, and infant cognition in a U.S. Cohort. Environ Health Perspect. 2005; 113(10): 1376–1380.
54.
Oken E, Radesky JS, Wright RO, Bellinger DC, Amarasiriwardena CJ, Kleinman KP, et al. Maternal fish intake during pregnancy, blood mercury levels and child cognition at age 3 years in US Cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 2008; 167: 1171–1181.
55.
Suzuki K, Nakaia K, Sugawaraa T, Nakamuraa T, Ohbaa T, Shimadaa M, et al: Neurobehavioraleffects of prenatalexposure to methylmercury and PCBs, and seafoodintake: Neonatal behavioral assessment scale results of Tohoku study of child development. Environ Res. 2010; 110(7): 699–704.
56.
Jedrychowski W, Jankowski J, Flak E, Skarupa A, Mroz E, Sochacka-Tatara E, et al. Effects of prenatal exposure to mercury on cognitive and psychomotor function in one-year-old infants: epidemiologic cohort study in Poland. Ann Epidemiol. 2006;16: 439–447.
57.
Jedrychowski W, Perera F, Jankowskic J, Rauh V, Flaka E, Caldwelld KL, et al. Fish consumption in pregnancy, cord blood mercury level and cognitive and psychomotor development of infants followed over the first three years of life: Krakow epidemiologic study. Environ Int. 2007; 33(8): 1057–1062.
58.
Steuerwald U, Weihe P, Jørgensen PJ, Bjerve K, Brock J, Heinzow B, et al. Maternal seafood diet, methylmercury exposure, and neonatal neurologic function. J Pediatr. 2000; 136: 599–605.
59.
Davidson PW, Strain JJ, Meyers GJ, Thurston SW, Bonham MP, Shamlaye CF, et al. Neurodevelopmental effects of maternal nutritional status and exposure to methylmercury from eating fish during pregnancy. NeuroToxicol. 2008; 29(5): 767–75.
60.
Davidson PW, Sloane-Reeves J, Myers GJ, Hansen ON, Huang LS, Georger LA, et al. Association between prenatal exposure to methylmercury and visuospatial ability at 10.7 years in the Seychelles child development study. Neuro Toxicol. 2008; 29: 453–459.
61.
Myers GJ, Davidson PW, Cox C, Shamlaye CF, Palumbo D, Cernichiari E, et al. Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in Seychelles child development study. Lancet 2003; 17(361): 1686–1692.
62.
Lederman SA, Jones RL, Caldwell KL, Rauh V, Sheets SE, Tang D, et al. Relation between Cord Blood Mercury Levels and Early Child Development in a World Trade Center Cohort. Environ Health Perspectives. 2008; 116(8): 1085–10 91.
63.
Freire C, Ramos R, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Dı´ez S, Vioque J, Ballester F, et al. Hair mercury levels, fish consumption, and cognitive development in preschool children from Granada, Spain. Environ Res. 2010; 110: 96–104.
64.
Daniels JL, Longnecker MP, Rowland AS, Golding J. ALSPAC Study Team. University of Bristol Institute of Child Health. Fish intake during pregnancy and early cognitive development of offspring. Epidemiol. 2004; 15(4): 394–402.
65.
Marquesa RC, Doreac JG, Bastosa RW, de Freitas Rebelob M, de Freitas Fonsecab M, Malm O. Maternal mercury exposure and neuro-motor development in breastfed infants from Porto Velho (Amazon), Brazil. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2007; 210: 51–60.
66.
Palumbo DR, Cox C, Davidson PW, Myers GJ, Choi A, Shamlaye C, et al. Association between prenatal exposure to methylmercury and cognitive functioning in Seychellois children: a reanalysis of the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Ability from the main cohort study. Environ Res. 2000; 84(2): 81–88.
67.
Davidson PW, Palumbo D, Myers GJ, Cox C, Shamlaye CF, Sloane-Reeves J, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of Seychellois children from the pilot cohort at 108 months following prenatal exposure to methylmercury from a maternal fish diet. Environ Res. 2000; 84(1): 1–11.
68.
Davidson PW, Leste A, Benstrong E, Burns CM, Valentin J, Sloane-Reeves J, et al. Fish consumption, mercury exposure, and their associations with scholastic achievement in the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neuro Toxicol. 2010; 31: 439–447.
69.
Plusquellec P, Muckle G, Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Bégin G, Desrosiers C, et al. The relation of environmental contaminants exposure to behavioral indicators in Inuit preschoolers in Arctic Quebec. Neuro Toxicol. 2010; 31(1): 17–25.
70.
Llop S, Guxens M, Murcia M, Lertxundi A, Ramon R, Riano I, et al. Prenatal exposure to mercury and infant neurodevelopment in a multicenter cohort in Spain: study of potentials modifiers. Am J Epidemiol. 2012; DOI:10.1093/aje/kwr328.
71.
Bellinger D. Neurological and behavioral consequences of childhood lead exposure. PLoS Med 2008; 5(5): e115. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050115.
72.
Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, Bellinger DC, et al. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2005; 113: 894–899.
73.
Bellinger DC, Hu H, Kalaniti K, Thomas N, Rajan P, Sambandam S, et al. A pilot study of blood lead levels and neurobehavioral function in children living in Chennai, India. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2005; 11(2): 138–143.
74.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Preventing lead poisoning in young children. Atlanta: CD; 2005.
75.
Lidsky TI, Schneider JS. Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. Brain 2003; 126: 5–19.
76.
Jedrychowski W, Perera F, Jankowski J, Rauh V, Flak E, Caldwell KL, et al. Prenatal low-level lead exposure and developmental delay of infants at age 6 months (Krakow inner city study). Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2008; 211(3–4): 345–351.
77.
Jedrychowski W, Perera F, Jankowski J, Mrozek-Budzyn D, Mroz E, Flak E, et al. Gender specific differences in neurodevelopmental effects of prenatal exposure to very low-lead levels: the prospective cohort study in three-year olds. Early Hum Dev. 2009; 85(8): 503–510.
78.
Jedrychowski W, Perera FP, Jankowski J, Mrozek-Budzyn D, Mroz E, Flak E, et al. Very low prenatal exposure to lead and mental development of children in infancy and early childhood: Krakow prospective cohort study. Neuroepidemiology. 2009; 32(4): 270–278.
79.
Wasserman GA, Liu X, Popovac D, Factor-Litvak P, Kline J, Waternaux C, et al. The Yugoslavia Prospective Lead Study: contributions of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure to early intelligence. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2000; 22(6): 811–818.
80.
Canfield RL, Henderson CR Jr, Cory-Slechta DA, Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP. Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter. Engl J Med. 2003; 348(16): 1517–1526.
81.
Emory E, Ansari Z, Pattillo R, Archibold E, Chevalier J. Maternal blood lead effects on infant intelligence at age 7 months. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003; 188(4): 26–32.
82.
Chiodo LM, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL. Neurodevelopmental effects of postnatal lead exposure at very low levels. Neurotoxicol Teratology 2004; 26: 359–371.
83.
Chen A, Dietrich KN, Ware JH, Radcliffe J, Rogan WJ. IQ and blood lead from 2 to 7 years of age: are the effects in older children the residual of high blood lead concentrations in 2-year-olds? Environ Health Perspect. 2005; 113(5): 597–601.
84.
Surkan PJ, Zhang A, Trachtenberg F, Daniel DB, McKinlay S, Bellinger DC. Neuropsychological function in children with blood lead levels <10 microg/dL. Neurotoxicology. 2007; 28(6): 1170–1177.
85.
Jusko TA, Henderson CR, Lanphear BP, Cory-Slechta DA, Parsons PJ, Canfield RL. Blood lead concentrations < 10 microg/dL and child intelligence at 6 years of age. Environ Health Perspect. 2008; 116(2): 243–248.
86.
Hornung RW, Lanphear BP, Dietrich KN. Age of greatest susceptibility to childhood lead exposure: a new statistical approach. Environ Health Perspect. 2009; 117(8): 1309–12.
87.
Téllez-Rojo MM, Bellinger D, Arroyo-Quiroz C, Lamadrid-Figueroa H, Mercado-García A, Schnaas-Arrieta L, et al. Longitudinal associations between blood lead concentrations lower than 10 μg/dL and neurobehavioral development in environmentally exposed children in Mexico City. Pediatrics. 2006; 118 (2): e323 -e330.
88.
Hu H, Téllez-Rojo MM, Bellinger D, Smith D, Ettinger AS, Lamadrid-Figueroa H, et al. Fetal lead exposure at each stage of pregnancy as a predictor of infant mental development. Environ Health Perspect. 2006; 114(11): 1730–1735.
89.
Mostafa GA, El-Shahawi HH, Mokhtar A. Blood lead levels in Egyptian children from high and low lead-polluted areas: impact on cognitive function. Acta Neurol Scand. 2009; 120(1): 30–37.
90.
Al-Saleh I, Shinwari N, Nester M, Mahhour A, Moncari L, Mohamed GED, et al. Longitudinal study of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure and early cognitive development in Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia: a preliminary results of cord blood lead levels. J Tropical Pediatrics. 2008; 54(5): 300–307.
91.
Bellinger D. Intellectual Impairment and Blood Lead Levels. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349: 500–502.
92.
Mendola P, Selevan SG, Gutter S, Rice D. Environmental factots associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental deficits. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 2002; 8: 188–197.
93.
Lu C, Bravo R, Caltabiano LM, Irish RM, Weeraseker G, Barr DB. The presence of dialkylphosphates infresh fruit juices: implication for organophasphorus pesticide exposure and risk assessment. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2005; 68(3): 209–227.
94.
Budtz-Jørgensen E, Keiding N, Grandjean P. Effects of exposure imprecision on estimation of the benchmark dose. Risk Anal. 2004; 24(6): 1689–1696.
95.
Bellinger DC. Interpretation of small effect sizes in occupational and environmental neurotoxicology: individual versus population risk. Neuro Toxicol. 2007; 28: 245–251.
96.
Winneke G. Appraisal of neurobehavioral methods in environmental health research: The developing brain as a target for neurotoxic chemicals. Int J Hyg Health. 2007; 210: 601–609.
Share
RELATED ARTICLE
| eISSN: | 1898-2263 |
| ISSN: | 1232-1966 |
Improvement of visual identification of the journal - task financed under the agreement No. 618/P-DUN/2019 by the Minister of Science and Higher Education allocated to the activities of disseminating science.
Generation of the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) - task financed under the agreement No. 618/P-DUN/2019 by the Minister of Science and Higher
© 2006-2024 Journal hosting platform by Bentus
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
