Online first
Current issue
Archive
Special Issues
About the Journal
Publication Ethics
Anti-Plagiarism system
Instructions for Authors
Instructions for Reviewers
Editorial Board
Editorial Office
Contact
Reviewers
All Reviewers
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
General Data Protection Regulation (RODO)
RESEARCH PAPER
Application of the hypothesis of Developmental Origin of Health and Diseases (DOHaD) in epidemiological studies of women at reproductive age and pregnant women in Poland
1
Department of Health Promotion, Food and Nutrition, Institute of Rural Health, Lublin, Poland
Ann Agric Environ Med. 2011;18(2):355-364
KEYWORDS
DOHaDepigeneticsIUGR – intrauterine growth retardationlow birth weightmalnutritionpregnancy outcomepremature birththrifty phenotype hypothesis
ABSTRACT
Epidemiological population studies indicate that the nutrition of women at reproductive age and during pregnancy exerts an effect not only on the term of delivery, development of the foetus and birth weight, but also on the susceptibility of off spring to civilization diseases in adulthood, according to the hypothesis of Developmental Origin of Heath and Diseases (DOHaD). The author analyses the results of epidemiological studies conducted in 2011 in a randomly selected representative population of 6,000 Polish adolescents aged 14-24 (of the total of adolescents, a population of females was selected for analysis), and the results of foetal period health monitoring of mother and child (PRAMS) which has been conducted in Poland since 2009 in the population of mothers and their newborn babies staying after delivery in all hospitals in Poland. Analysis of these two population studies indicates that a high percentage of Polish women at reproductive age are dieting. At the same time, confirmation of the fact of becoming pregnant occurs between weeks 5-8 after conception. This shows that until that time, the foetuses of women on the Apple weight loss diet develop conditions of nutritional deficits which, according to the DOHaD hypothesis, may result in epigenetic changes which increase the susceptibility of off spring in adulthood to civilization diseases: cardiovascular disorders, type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome. This hypothesis is confirmed by the high percentages of newborns in Poland born with low birth weight or prematurely born, as well as the fact that the percentage of anemia in pregnant Polish women is twice as high as in other developed countries. Simultaneously, a large number of babies are born with excessive birth weight (macrosomia). The author considers that in the countries of East-Central Europe the phenomenon observed is characteristic at present of the developing countries of the Third World, called the ‘double burden of malnutrition’. This situation creates risk of the occurrence of an epidemics of civilization diseases in our part of Europe of a greater intensity than in other developed countries. The author postulates that the educational actions in the area of health promotion in the control of overweight and obesity should be differentiated according to gender and age. The activities to-date in the field of overweight and obesity control in Poland has led to an increase in the number of girls and young women suffering from nutritional disorders as a result of too drastic methods of losing weight. According to the DOHaD hypothesis applied, this may have tragic results for their off spring and for future generations.
REFERENCES (105)
1.
Hoff mann W, Th yrian JR. Population-Based Studies are Necessary to Study the Eff ect of Intrauterine Life, Nova Acta Leopoldina NF 112, 2011;382:11-16.
2.
Barker DJ, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1986;1:1077- 1081.
3.
Barker DJ. Th e developmental origins of adult disease. J Amer Coll Nutr 2004;23:588-595.
4.
Kermack WO, McKendrick AG, McKinlay PL. Death-rates in Great Britain and Sweden. Some general regularities and their signifi cance. Lancet 1934;226:698-703.
5.
Osmond C, Barker DJ, Winter PD, Fall CH, Simmonds SJ. Early growth and death from cardiovascular disease in women. BMJ 1993;307:1519-1524.
6.
Barker DJ, Winter PD, Osmond C, Margetts B, Simmonds SJ. Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 1989;2:577- 580.
7.
Barker DJ, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1986;1:1077-.
8.
Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the Th ird Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001;285: 2486-2497.
9.
Barker DJP, Hales CN, Fall CHD, Osmond C, Phipps K, Clark PMS. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidemia (syndrome X): relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 1993; 36: 62-67.
10.
Ravelli GP., Stein ZA, Susser MW. Obesity in young men aft er famine exposure in utero and early infancy. New Engl J Med 1976;295:349- 353.
11.
Luo ZC, Xiao L, Nuyt AM. Mechanisms of developmental programming of the metabolic syndrome and related disorders.World J Diabetes 2010; 1(3), 89-98, Available from: URL: http:// www.wjgnet.com/1948-9358/ full/v1/i3/89.htm DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.....
12.
Waterland RA, Jirtle RL. Transposable elements: targets for early nutritional eff ects on epigenetic gene regulation. Mol Cell Biol 2003;23:5293-5300.
13.
Waterland RA, Jirtle RL. Early nutrition, epigenetic changes at transposons and imprinted genes, and enhanced susceptibility to adult chronic diseases. Nutrition 2004;20:63-68.
14.
Morgan HD, Sutherland HG, Martin DI, Whitelaw E. Epigenetic inheritance at the agouti locus in the mouse. Nat Genet 1999;23: 314- 318.
15.
Rakyan VK, Chong S, Champ ME, Cuthbert PC, Morgan HD, Luu KV, Whitelaw E. Transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic states at the murine AxinFu allele occurs aft er maternal and paternal transmission. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100: 2538-2543.
16.
MotrenkoT. Embryo-fetal origin of diseases – new approach on epigenetic reprogramming. Arch Perinat Med 2010; 16(1): 11-15.
17.
Watkins AJ, Wilkins A, Cunningham C, et al. Low protein diet fed exclusively during mouse oocyte maturation leads to behavioural and cardiovascular abnormalities in off spring. J Physiol 2008; 15, 586: 2231-44.
18.
Watkins AJ, Wilkins A, Cunningham C, et al. Low protein diet fed exclusively during mouse oocyte maturation leads to behavioural and cardiovascular abnormalities in off spring. J Physiol 2008;15(586): 2231-44.
19.
Fowden AL, Sibley C, Reik W, Constacia M. Imprinted genes, placental development and fetal growth. Horm Res 2006;65(Suppl.3):50-58.
20.
Hales CN and Barker DJ. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: the thrift y phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia 1992;35:595- 601.
21.
Neel JV. Diabetes mellitus: a “thrift y” genotype rendered detrimental by “progress”? Am J Hum Genet 1962;14:353-362.
23.
Barker DJ, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1986;1:1077.
24.
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA. Th e developmental origins of the metabolic syndrome. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2004;15:183-187.
25.
McMillen C, Robinson JS. Developmental Origins of the Metabolic Syndrome: Prediction, Plasticity, and Programming. Physiol Rev 2005;85:571–63, www.prv.org. doi:10.1152/physrev.00053.2003.
26.
Hales CN, Barker DJ, Clark PM, Cox LJ, Fall C, Osmond C, Winter PD. Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. BMJ 1991;303:1019-1022.
27.
Gluckman PD, Cutfi eld W, Hofman P, Hanson MA. Th e fetal, neonatal and infant environments–Th e longterm consequences for disease risk. Early Hum Dev 2005a;81:51-59.
28.
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Spencer HG. Predictive adaptive responses and human evolution. Trends Ecol Evol 2005c;20:527-533.
29.
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Spencer HG, Bateson P. Environmental infl uences during development and their later consequences for health and disease: Implications for the interpretation of empirical studies. Proc R Soc B 2005d;272:671-677.
30.
Kajantie E, Osmond C, Barker DJP, Forse´n T, Philips DIW, Eriksson JG. Size at birth as a predictor of mortality in adulthood: A follow-up of 350 000 personyears. Int J Epidemiol 2005;34:655-663. 31. Kirkwood TBL. Evolution of ageing. Mech Ageing Dev 2002;123:737- 745.
31.
Hinchliff e SA, Lynch MRJ, Sargent PH, Howard CV, Van- Velzen D. Th e eff ect of intrauterine growth retardation on the development of renal nephrons. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992;99:296-301.
33.
Langley-Evans SC, Langley-Evans AJ, Marchand MC. Nutritional programming of blood pressure and renal morphology. Arch Physiol Biochem 2003;111:8-16.
34.
Mallard C, Loeliger M, Copolov D, Rees S. Reduced number of neurons in the hippocampus and the cerebellum in the postnatal guinea-pig following intrauterine growth-restriction. Neuroscience 2000;100: 327-333.
35.
Tolsa C, Zimine S, Warfi eld S, Freschi M, Rossignol A, Lazeyras F, Hanquinet S, Pfi zenmaier M, Hu¨ ppi P. Early alteration of structural and functional brain development in premature infants born with intrauterine growth restriction. Pediatr Res 2004;56:132-138.
36.
Sayer A, Cooper C. Fetal programming of body composition and musculoskeletal development. Early Hum Dev 2005;81:735-744.
37.
Hales CN & Barker DJ. Th e thrift y phenotype hypothesis. Br Med Bull 2001;60:5-20. 38. Snoeck A, Remacle C, Reusens B & Hoet JJ. Eff ect of a low protein diet during pregnancy on the fetal rat endocrine pancreas. Biol Neonate 1990;57:107-118.
38.
Snoeck A, Remacle C, Reusens B & Hoet JJ. Eff ect of a low protein diet during pregnancy on the fetal rat endocrine pancreas. Biol Neonate 1990;57:107-119.
39.
Hales CN & Barker DJ. Th e thrift y phenotype hypothesis. Br Med Bull 2001;60:5-20.
40.
Karlberg J. Secular trends in pubertal development. Horm Res 2002;57 (Suppl 2):19-30.
41.
Law CM, Barker DJP, Osmond C, Fall CHD, Simmonds SJ. Early growth and abdominal fatness in adult life. J Epidemiol Comm Hlth 1992;46: 184-186.
42.
McMillen C, Robinson JS. Developmental Origins of the Metabolic Syndrome: Prediction, Plasticity, and Programming. Physiol Rev 2005;85: 571-63, www.prv.org. doi:10.1152/physrev.00053.2003.
43.
Lillycrop KA, Hanson MA, Burdge GC. Epigenetics and the Infl uence of Maternal Diet; in Newnham JP, Ross MG (Eds). Early Life Origins of Human Health and Disease.Basel, Karger 2009: pp 11-20.
44.
Fishman SM, Caulfi eld L, de Onis M, et al. Childhood and Materna underweight. In: Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CLJ, (Eds). Comparative quantifi cation of health risks: global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004:39-161.
45.
Prentice AM, Moore SE. Early programming of adult diseases in resource poor countries. Arch Dis Child 2005;90:429-32.
46.
Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta Z, Caulfi eld LE, de Onis M, Ezzati M, Mathers C, Rivera J, the Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group. Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet 2008;371:243-60.
47.
Yajnik CS, Fall CHD, Coyaji KJ, Hirve1 SS, Rao S, Barker DJP, Joglekar C, Kellingray S. Neonatal anthropometry: the thin–fat Indian baby. Th e Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. Int J Obes 2003;27:173-180. doi:10.1038/ sj.ijo.802219.
48.
Stein CE, Fall CHD, Kumaran K, Osmond C, Cox V, Barker DJP. Fetal growth and coronary heart disease in South India. Lancet 1996;348: 1269-1273.
49.
Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Kapur A, Vijay V, Mohan V, Das AK, Rao PV, Yajnik CS, Prasanna Kumar KM, Nair JD. Th e Diabetes Epidemiology Study Group in India (DESI). High prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in India: National Urban Diabetes Survey. Diabetologia 2001;44:1094-1101.
50.
McKeigue PM, Shah B, Marmot MG. Relation of central obesity and insulin resistance with high diabetes prevalence and cardiovascular risk in South Asians. Lancet 1991;337:382-386.
51.
Gopalan C. Low birth weight: signifi cance and implications. In: Sachdev HPS, Chaudhury P, (Eds). Nutrition in children; developing country concerns. Imprint: New Delhi, 1994.
52.
Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta Z, Caulfi eld LE, de Onis M, Ezzati M, Mathers C, Rivera J, the Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group: Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet 2008;371:243-260.
53.
Rao S, Yajnik CS, Kanade A, Fall CHD, Margetts BM, Jackson AA, Shier R, Joshi S, Rege S, Lubree H, Desai B: Maternal fat intakes and micronutrient status are related to fetal size at birth in rural India; the Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. J Nutr 2001;131:1217-1224.
54.
Ganpule A, Yajnik CS, Fall CHD, Rao S, Fisher DJ, Kanade A, Cooper C, Naik S, Joshi N, Lubree H, Deshpande V, Joglekar C. Bone mass in Indian children; relationships to maternal nutritional status and diet during pregnancy; the Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:2994-3001.
55.
Yajnik CS. Obesity epidemic in India; intrauterine origins? Proc Nutr Soc 2004;63:1-10.
56.
Newnham JP, Ross MG, (Eds). Early Life Origins of Human Health and Disease. Basel, Karger 2009, pp 11-20.
57.
Bhattacharya S, Campbell DM, Liston WA, Bhattacharya S. Eff ect of body mass index on pregnancy outcomes in nulliparous women delivering singelton babies. BMC Public Health 2007;7:168.
58.
Newnham JP, Ross MG (eds): Early Life Origins of Human Health and Disease. Basel, Karger 2009, pp 164-173.
59.
Gambling L, Danzeisen R, Fosset C, Andersen HS, Dunford S, Srai SK, HJ MC. Iron and copper interactions in development and the eff ect on pregnancy outcome. J Nutr 2003;133:1554-1556.
60.
Lewis RM, Petry CJ, Ozanne SE, Hales CN. Eff ects of maternal iron restriction in the rat on blood pressure, glucose tolerance, and serum lipids in the 3-month-old off spring. Metabolism 2001;50:562-567.
61.
Lewis RM, Forhead AJ, Petry CJ, Ozanne SE, Hales CN. Long-term programming of blood pressure by maternal dietary iron restriction in the rat. Br J Nutr 2002;88:283-290.
62.
Allen LH. Anemia and iron defi ciency: eff ects on pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(5 suppl):1280-1284.
63.
Steer PJ. Maternal hemoglobin concentration and birth weight. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(5 suppl):1285-1287.
64.
Scholl TO. Iron status during pregnancy: setting the stage for mother and infant. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81(5 suppl):1218-1222.
65.
Beard JL. Eff ectiveness and strategies of iron supplementation during pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(5 suppl):1288-1294.
66.
Foresight Project Tackling Obesities: Future Choices’ UK Government Foresight Programme,2007 http://www.bis.gov.uk/foresigh... obesities/reports-andpublications.
67.
Cesar G, Victora CG, Linda Adair L, Caroline Fall C, Pedro C, Hallal P, Reynaldo Martorell R, Richter L, Sachdev HS. Th e Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group: Maternal and child undernutrition: consequences for adult health and human capita. Lancet 2008; 371(9609): 340–357. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61692-4.
68.
BMA Board of Science: Early life nutrition and lifelong health. British Medical Association, London; 2009.
69.
Barker DJP, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1986;I:1077- 1081.
70.
Barker DJ, Osmond C, Winter P, Margetts B, Simmonds SJ. Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 1989;II:577- 580.
71.
Osmond C, Barker DJ, Winter PD, Fall CH, Simmonds SJ. Early growth and death from cardiovascular disease in women. BMJ 1993;307:1519- 1524.
72.
Frankel S, Elwood P, Sweetnam P, Yarnell J, Davey Smith G. Birthweight, adult risk factors and incident coronary heart disease: the Caerphilly study. Public Health 1996;110:139-143.
73.
Leon DA, Lithell HO, Vagero D, Koupilova I, Mohsen R, Berglund L. Lithell U, McKeigue PM. Reduced fetal growth rate and increased risk of death from ischaemic heart disease: cohort study of 15 000 Swedish men and women born 1915-29. BMJ 1998;317:241-245.
74.
Rich-Edwards JW, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rosner B, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Hennekens CH. Birthweight and risk of cardiovascular disease in a cohort of women followed up since 1976. BMJ 1997;315:396-400.
75.
Ravelli GP, Stein ZA, Susser MW. Obesity in young men aft er famine exposure in utero and early infancy. New Engl J Med1976;295,349- 353.
76.
Abenheim HA, Kinch RA, Morin L, Benjamin A, Usher R. Eff ect of prepregnancy body mass index categories on obstetrical and neonatal outcomes. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2007;275:39-43.
77.
Weiss JL, Malone FD, Emig D, Ball RH, Nyberg DA, Comstock CH, Saade G, Eddleman K, Carter SM, Craigo SD, Carr SR, D’Alton ME. FASTER Research Consortium: Obesity, obstetric complications and caesarean delivery rate – a population based screening study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;190:1091-1097.
78.
Krishnamoorthy U, Schram CMH, Hill SR: Maternal obesity in pregnancy: is time for meaningful research to inform preventive and management strategies? BJOG 2006;113:1134-1140.
79.
Bhattacharya S, Campbell DM, Liston WA, Bhattacharya S. Eff ect of Body Mass Index on pregnancy outcomes in nulliparous women delivering singleton babies. BMC Public Health 2007;7:168 doi:10.118 6/1471-2458-7-168.
80.
Offi ce for National Statistics; Th e National Diet & Nutrition Survey: adults aged 19 to 64 years Offi ce for National Statistics, London 2002, www.statistics.gov.uk.
81.
Franko DL, Blais MA, Becker AE, Delinsky SS, Greenwood DN, Flores AT, Ekeblad ER, Eddy KT, Herzog DB. Pregnancy complications and neonatal outcomes in women with eating disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158(9):1461-1466.
82.
Bulik CM, Von Holle A, Siega-Riz AM, Torgersen L, Lie KK, Hamer RM, Berg CK, Sullivan P, Reichborn-Kjennerud T. 18Birth outcomes in women with eating disorders in the Norwegian Mother and Child cohort study (MoBa). Int J Eat Disord 2009;42(1):9-18.
83.
Conti J, Abraham S, Taylor A. Eating behavior and pregnancy outcome. J Psychosom Res 1998;44(3-4):465-77.
84.
Sollid CP, Wisborg K, Hjort J, Secher NJ. Eating disorder that was diagnosed before pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;190(1):206-210.
85.
Micali N, Simonoff E, Treasure J. Risk of major adverse perinatal outcomes in women with eating disorders. Br J Psychiatry 2007;190:255- 259 DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.106.020768.
86.
Pate JE, Pumariega AJ, Hester C, Garner DM. Cross-cultural patterns in eating disorders: a review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992; 31:802-809.
87.
Hill AJ. Motivation for eating behavior in adolescent girls: the body beautiful. Proc Nutr Soc 2006;65:376-384.
88.
Neumark-Sztainer DR, Wall MM, Haines JI et al. Shared risk and protective factors for overweight and disordered eating in adolescents. Am J Prev Med 2007;33:359-369.
89.
Chandler-Laney PC, Hunter GR, Bush NC, Alvarez JA, Roy JL, Byrne NM, Gower BA. Associations among body size dissatisfaction, perceived dietary control, and diet history in African American and European American women. Eat Behav 2009;10:202-208.
90.
Snooks MK, Hall SK. Relationship of body size, body image, and self-esteem in African American, European American, and Mexican American middle-class women. Health Care Women Int 2002;23: 460-466.
91.
Viner RM and Cole TJ. Who changes body mass between adolescence and adulthood? Factors predicting change in BMI between 16 years and 30 years in the 1970 British Birth Cohort. Int J Obes 2006;30: 1368-1374.
92.
Rasheed P. Perception of body weight and self-reported eating and exercise behavior among obese and non-obese women in Saudi Arabia. Public Health 1998;112:409-414.
93.
Cachelin FM, Rebeck RM, Chung GH, Pelayo E. Does ethnicity infl uence body-size preference? A comparison of body image and body size. Obes Res 2002;10:158-166.
94.
Wang MC, Ho TF, Anderson JN, Sabry ZI. Preference for thinness in Singapore – a newly industrialized society. Singapore Med J 1999;40(8): 502-507.
95.
Marmot MG. Social diff erential in health within and between populations. Daedalus 1994;123:197-216.
96.
Kramer MS, Seguin L, Lydon J, Goulet L. Socio-economic disparities in pregnancy outcome: why do the poor fare so poorly? Paediatr Perinatal Epidemiol 2000;14:194-210.
97.
Barker DJP. Th e foetal and infant origins of inequalities in health in Britain. J Public Health Med 1991;13:64-68.
98.
Singhal A, Cole TJ, Fewtrell M, Kennedy K, Stephenson T, Elias-Jones A & Lucas A. Promotion of faster weight gain in infants born small for gestational age: is there an adverse eff ect on later blood pressure? Circulation 2007;115:213-220.
99.
Singhal A, Wells J, Cole TJ, Fewtrell M, Lucas A. Programming of lean body mass: a link between birth weight, obesity, and cardiovascular disease? Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:726-30.
100.
Osmond C, Barker DJ. Fetal, infant and childhood growth are predictors of coronary heart disease, diabetes and hypertension in adult men and women. Environ Health Perspect 2000;108(Suppl 3):545-553.
101.
Baird J, Fisher D, Lucas P, Kleijnon J, Roberts H, Law C. Being big or growing fast: systematic review of size and growth in infancy and late obesity. BMJ 2005;331:929.
102.
Zatonski W, Didkowska J. Closing the gap: Cancer in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). Eur J Cancer 2008 Mar 19.
103.
Zatonski WA, Willett W. Changes in dietary fat and declining coronary heart disease in Poland: population based study. BMJ 2005;331(7510): 187-188.
104.
Rehm J, Sulkowska U, Manczuk M, Boff etta P, Powles J, Popova S, Zatonski W. Alcohol accounts for a high proportion of premature mortality in central and eastern Europe. Int J Epidemiol 2007; 36(2): 458-467.
105.
Zatonski W, Manczuk M, Powles J, Negri E. Convergence of male and female lung cancer mortality at younger ages in the European Union and Russia. Eur J Public Health 2007;17(5):450-454.
Share
RELATED ARTICLE
| eISSN: | 1898-2263 |
| ISSN: | 1232-1966 |
Improvement of visual identification of the journal - task financed under the agreement No. 618/P-DUN/2019 by the Minister of Science and Higher Education allocated to the activities of disseminating science.
Generation of the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) - task financed under the agreement No. 618/P-DUN/2019 by the Minister of Science and Higher
© 2006-2024 Journal hosting platform by Bentus
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
